INDIGENEOUS ISLAM AND YOGYAKARTA KINGDOM

(Tracking the Authenticity of Islamic Government in Yogyakarta)

Anjar Nugroho

Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto

Abstract

 

The congregation of two cultures always resulting on a contestation that ends up with two choices between elimination and acculturation, not excluded in it, the assembly of Islam and Java. One of the most time consuming aspect in Java Islamization are Politics and Power. This article is working on that meeting point by studying Yogyakarta Kingdom case as the base of the study. From the study of the process and the definition of Java Islamization and the indigenous of Islam, it is found that the core concept of politics in Yogyakarta Kingdom, as the representation of Java Islamic Politic, is indeed, Islam because the Kingdom is the manifestation and subordinate of the God’s power. The application of Senopati ing Alaga Abdurrahman Sayyidin Panatagama Khalifatullah title by the sultans in Yogyakarta has specific purpose. This title shows and supports above assumption. In the perspective of state politics, the Yogyakarta Kingdom doesn’t separate religion and state, between Din and Dawla. The Indigenousness Islam in the Yogyakarta Kingdom tradition context have reached the level of harmonization Islamic normativity and the historicity of human culture.

Key Word: Yogyakarta Kingdom, Islamization, acculturation, Javanese Politics.

A. Introduction

Prof. Simuh, Professor of the faculty of Theology UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, quotes H.J. Benda stating that Islam have been in the ports and the first few Kingdoms of North Sumatera (Aceh) since the 13^th century. Nevertheless, only after the 15^th and 16 century, Islam has become the main power of culture and religion in the archipelago. In this Islamic teaching era, according to Simuh, the role of Sufi group is very significant,¹ so that it is not surprising that the dominant Islam type in archipelago is tasawuf and a lot of Islamic literatures are very sufistic. The first Islamic Malay Literature in Indonesian literature is the work of Hamzah Fansuri, a sufi scholar from the end of the 16th century.

When Islam become the main power of culture and religion in archipelago, Islam has been “touched” by local tradition that had presented earlier, that is the tradition that had been built since Hindu-Buddhist era. Not exclusive in Java, Islam have undergo a lot of process of indigenousness trough cultural marriage as it is normally experienced by two entity that needs support to strengthen each other’s position. Majority, the marriage of Islam with local tradition started and developed by the Kingdom as the central of the Java culture.

Yogyakarta is one of the kingdoms that has significant role in the Islamization of Javanese culture or the Javanezation of Islam. Its existence started since Giyanti treaty at Dutch colonial era. The point of the treaty is to divide Mataram to become two states that are Kasunanan Surakarta and Kesultanan Yogyakarta.²

Up to the present, Yogyakarta Kingdom had very important influencing role for the Yogyakarta society life. Yogyakarta Kingdom had become symbolic identity of Javanese and Yogyakarta, which is presented as follows: the way to present oneself or self-representation, life purpose, ideology, and spiritual nuance. It had become common belief that the kingdom and Yogyakarta people have become political and life system in Java which applies the mixture of Islam and Javanese culture.³

Yogyakarta Kingdom, as any other kingdoms in Java or other Kingdom in the east, believes in the concept of harmony among political, economy, social and religious matters. At the Yogyakarta Kingdom, the harmony is implemented by the title that always used by the Kings of Yogyakarta, that is: Senopati ing Alaga Abdurrahman Sayyidin Panatagama Khalifatullah.”⁴ The rough translation of that title is that the Sultan is the legitimate leader that has the power to decide war or peace because of its position as the highest general and also as the spiritual leader who protects religion as khalifatulah that is the successor of the Muhammad prophet.

From above paragraph, it can be concluded that Yogyakarta Kingdom is the culmination of the Javanese Islam society that reflects the religious life in Javanese life. This article is trying to discover the similarity between Islam (normative) and Javanese culture as efforts done by Yogyakarta Kingdom to create authenticity of the administration of Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta as an Islamic state. The evidence showing that Yogyakarta Kingdom is concern with Islamic morality and ngugemi the teaching of Islam is shown by kitab serat, such as: Serat Surya Raja, Serat Menak Malebari, Serat Puji I, Serat Puji II Warna Warni, etc.⁵ Those Classic intellectual works had become the cultural heritage that is very useful in unveiling the religiosity in the Yogyakarta Kingdom tradition and Javanese society.

B. The Islamization of The Kingdom Cultural Heritage

Different with some western scholars who concluded that the meeting point between Islam and local culture is seen as the Javanization (jawanisasi) of the Islamic values, Simuh hold different opinion. He stated that Western scholars tend to use Hinduism as the reference point so that it decreases the real influence of Islam. For him, that is more to the Islamization process of the kingdom cultural heritage than the Javanization of Islamic elements.⁶

Simuh also states that,⁷ there are four things that causing the Islamization of this old heritage, first, the Kingdom cultural heritage which is very delicate, adiluhung and rich is for sure can be preserved and developed at Islamic era if combined with Islamic elements. Objectively, the Javanese noble and man of letters since the 8th century have developed the palace culture using the Hinduism elements. The myth Ramayana and Mahabarata have inspired the occurrence of various literatures and pewayangan art work complete with its rule (pakem). It is mentioned in Serat Babad that the development of those art forms is effected by the pious leaders, especially Sunan Kalijaga. The real example of Islamization in pewayangan is reflected by the concept of jimat layang kalimasada (kalimat syahadah) which become the heritage weapon of Aamarta Kingdom (Pandawa).

Second, the poets and Javanese man of the letters need material to be used as subject matters in their work. Because Hinduism has separated from the Islamic golden age, then the only reference source to complete the old bible would be the bible from pesantren. Therefore, when they realize that pesantren has the source of deity concepts, ethics, and rich spiritual philosophy, they are very enthusiastic to insert the new elements to the Javanese culture treasure.

Third, the social, culture, and politics stability are considered. The existence of two cultural environments that is pesantren tradition and kejawen needs to be abridged so that common understanding can be reached and conflicts that may happen are eliminated. And Dan fourth, The Kingdom as the supporter and the protector of religion needs to help the syi’ar Islam. In order to do so, the authority of the Kingdom builds a lot of facilities, structural and cultural ones. This explains the occurrence of several religious ceremonies such as sekaten, grebeg maulud, grebeg hari raya fitrah, and grebeg hari raya haji,⁸ etc.

1. The symbolic meaning of Yogyakarta Kingdom

Kingdom or Kraton is the place where the queens stay. This abbreviation derived from the words ka + ratu + an = kraton. It is also called Kadaton, which means palace. So, kingdom is a palace which also has religious, philosophy, and cultural meaning.⁹ In fact, literally, Yogyakarta Kingdom is full of those meanings. The architecture, the way they place the sheds, the carvings, the accessories, until the colorings also have certain meaning. The trees planted in the garden inside it are also chosen. All the trees planted are dedicated to give advice to human to love and surrender to God’s will, to be modest and diligent, to be careful in daily act and behavior, etc.¹⁰

According to Mark R. Woodward, quoting from Heine-Geldern, countries and palaces in south east Asia that has gone through Indianization (Indianisasi), are microcosms. The construction of state and palace as perfect microcosms is an important source of kingdom legitimacy. This theme, according to Woordward, is echoing in a lot of studies on religion and the effort to of managing state in the area recently. Quoting Tambiah, who called Mataram as “galactic polity (masyarakat galaktis), that is a state managed as an arena.¹¹

Different with states that have gone through Indianization, Yogyakarta kingdom in its cosmological understanding put kasekten (supernatural power) in the subordinate position under divine revelation and saint. The Yogyakarta Kingdom is a cosmic model, but the cosmic it represents is Islamic.¹²

Iconography, symbolism and the architecture of Yogyakarta Kingdom describe the structure of Muslim cosmology, the relation between sufism and shari’a, and the introspective and cosmologic formulation of mystical path, the origin of perfect man (insan kamil).¹³ Therefore, the kingdom is best in anything, it is a holy precinct that defines state and society. In this sense, it is like Ka’bah in Mecca that becomes the center of the Muslim world. Kingdom is the mystical center and spiritual body for the sultanate with a role as the place to present the godliness essence represented by the sultan.

For that reason, the kingdom has a significant role in the life of Javanese State. The Kingdom possession covers not just the area, but also the people and other resources, is a blessing that legitimate its possession. Above all, it is the Kingdom who has the authority to differentiate the king with prince or rebellion. ¹⁴

The architectural form is linier and consists of several gates and south-north oriented axis yards. Using common sense, it is a model of a perfect human body and the path to reach the perfection of human being. It is based on the wahdah al-wujud theory, and seven level of form (martabat wujud).¹⁵ The Kingdom has nine gates, representing holes in human body that is (according to serat wirid, have to be closed in meditation or Muslim funeral).¹⁶

One third of southern part of the kingdom describes the descendant of perfect human- in divine aspect and the born of a kingdom’s baby. This only can be read from south to north. One third northern part of the kingdom is the model of introspective formula and the cosmology of mystical path. If red from south to north, it pictures path to have a glance unity with Allah, while, if it is red backwards, it reflects cosmological and eschatological path to the final union. If seen from south, the center of the kingdom is the administration centre of the kingdom, focusing on the loyalty concepts and duties. This is similar to the normative piety and act of devotion to God. If seen from the north, the patio and the middle part of the Kingdom is similar to the climbing of axis mundi,¹⁷ entering the heaven and the eternal union with Allah. In this perspective, the sultan is analog with transcendent deity and His-palace, and also with the angels surrounding His throne.¹⁸

From above description, it can be concluded that Yogyakarta Kingdom has a deep symbolic meaning, especially when observed from the religiosity of Java Islam perspective. Religious concept is more concretely reflected by the state arrangement of keraton (tata-rakit kraton) - Great Mosque (masjid Agung) that contains the philosophy of “manunggaling kawula-Gusti”. The Kingdom is the place for material physical activity, human symbol with his world as the center of culture. While in vertical dimension, Masjid Agung is the spiritual act of worshiping God as the center of religion.

2. Symbolic Meaning of the Yogyakarta Kingdom Tradition

Having known that the symbolic meaning of the Yogyakarta Kingdom is as the center of cultural and the life of Javanese people, now we will focus on various rituals as part of Yogyakarta Kingdom tradition that contain very significant religious values. Among those ceremonies/rituals is The Garebeg ceremony. There are three kinds of Garebeg: Garebeg Pasa to celebrate ‘Idul Fitri, Garebeg Besar in the Dzulhijjah to celebrate ‘Idul Qurban, and Garebeg Mulud to celebrate Maulud (the birth) of Prophet Muhammad SAW. The last one is also mentioned as Sekaten, which is derived from Syahadatain or Islamic profession of faith.¹⁹

In this ritual, charities are collected in the Kingdom Mosque (Agung). Having prayed in Arabic, those charities are given to thousands of people. These objects, especially the imitation mountain (gunungan) made of sticky rice, are believed to bring luck and guaranteed to bring prosperity and health of the people. Before and during the distribution of the imitation mountain, the Sultan sits above the throne, surrounded by the Kingdom personnel and very supernatural heirloom. His attention is focusing on Tugu, a monument located in the northern part that symbolizes the unity of human and God. The Sultan reaches mystical union at that time. This is the main source of blessing that most people wait for to be given to them. Then, the Sultan can use his mystical achievement as an effort to strengthen the legitimacy of the Kingdom. In this ritual, he is not merely as the representative of Allah, he with all the wills and purposes, is the God Himself. Therefore, he directly gives the godliness blessing to his followers. ²⁰

This ritual within the theory of the Kingdom is actually derived from “imperialism” of doctrines of sufim about qutb. Qutb is the center of the universe and the most prominent saint. He preserves the nature and plays the role as the spiritual regulator of the world. Schimmel describes the role of qutb in sufism: “the world will not exist without a pole or an axis- that moves the world as the mills moves its axis-and does not work otherwise”.²¹

Sultan, therefore, is the qutb of the state. As the consequences of this mystical union, he defends the integrity of law, controls supernatural sources (heirloom and sacred places), and is in charge as the distributor of blessing and divine blessing distributed to the people. His role as the spiritual guide is stuck out in garebeg, the time when everyone was asked to declare his/her faith prior to receiving the part of imitation of mountain. The principle which differences between the formulation of Javanese Kingdom and classic sufism is related to this doctrine, that is, the duty of the sultan as the source of material and spiritual blessing. This difference is exist because the usage of the doctrine of mystical union as the base of political and social order – rather than the difference of fundamental ideology.²²

Commenting on rituals in that Yogyakarta Kingdom tradition, Prof Simuh argues that the rituals reflect the marriage of cultures namely Islamic (sufism), and Hindu-Buddhist, even with animism-dynamism. It shows kingdom oriented with its mystical character.²³

Is the model of cultural marriage such as the ceremony/ritual of the Kingdom still considered as part of authentic Islamic teaching and not against Islamic teaching? Revivalist Muslims will mostly view that it is not part of Islamic teaching, even though it has Islamic nuance. It is only considered as Islamic syncretistic which is no longer authentic as taught by Prophet Muhammad (sunnah rasul). Meanwhile, in this article, the author tries to see it from other perspective, which, even in Islam itself, there are a lot of different perspectives in looking at religious matter. The author tries to see the Kingdom ritual from the perspective of Indigenous Islam or Indigenousness of Islam, where its philosophical and normative base will be explained at section bellow.

C. Indigenousness of Islam

History shows that, religion and culture can each other effect because both contain values and symbols. Religion is a symbol symbolizing the obedience to God. Culture also contains value and symbol where people live in. Religion needs symbolic system. In other words, religion needs culture of religion. The two needs to be differentiated. Religion is final, universal, perennial and absolute, while culture is particular, relative and temporary. Religion without culture can develop as personal religion, but without culture, religion as collective belief will not fit in anywhere.²⁴

The interaction between religion and culture can take place by, first, religion can effect the formation of culture, the value is religious and the symbol is cultural. For example shalat can give effect to the architecture of building. Second, religion gives effect to the religious symbol. This happens in Indonesian culture. Pesantren and kiai come from padepokan and hajar. And third, culture can replace the value system and religion symbol.²⁵

Culture and religion have two similarities; both are value system and system of symbol and both are easily fragile to changes. Religion in the perspective of social science is a value system containing several conceptions about construction of reality which bring major impact on explaining normative structural order and social order which comprehends and appraises its surrounding. While art tradition is the expression of creation, work and will of human (in certain society) which contains values and religious massages, philosophical perception and local wisdom.

Both religion and culture are giving conception and perspective in coping life so that is inline with God’s wishes and His humanity. For example, in welcoming a new born baby, religion commands to do Aqiqah to redeem (rahinah) the baby, while culture which is wrapped in marhabaan and barjanji readings gives different insight, but has the same purpose, that is to pray for the piety of the newborn so that it is in accordance with the hope of deity and humanity. This also applies in tahlilan, which offers perspective and conception in coping with the death.²⁶

That is the reason why there are dialogues between religion and culture. The religion adds spirit to the culture, while culture contributes richness to religion. But sometimes the dialogue between the two turns to be tension. Tradition, local culture or customary tradition is often not inline with religion as the absolute deity teachings.

1. The Epistemology of Indigenous Islam

The idea of indigenousness of Islam is coined by at the 1980s. In the “indigenousness of Islam”, it is explained how Islam as a normative teaching that comes from God being accommodated into culture that comes from human without losing each other’s identity. It is not the purity of Islam or the process to create the same religious act like Muslim in middle east. Is not the Arabization or the process to identify ourselves as middle east means that we have taken away from our own culture? In this matter, indigenousness is not an effort to avoid the opposition from the local culture, but its is indeed a way to preserve the culture. The core of indigenousness of Islam does not avoid polarization between religion and culture, because such polarization is inevitable.²⁷

The indigenousness of Islam makes religion and culture does not fight to each other, It has made religion and culture in harmony which comes to the fore in the form of unauthentic religious thought, and has a function of a bridge connecting religion and culture.

In the next stage, modes of religiousness which match to local context are created in a form of indigenous Islam as a response to authentic Islam or pristine Islam which promotes Arabization entire Islamic world. 'Indigenous Islam' gives wide room for various interpretations in different communities and areas. By so doing, Islam is not considered as one but many. There is no assumption that Islam in the middle east is pristine and true Islam because as a religion, Islam has a continuous process of history.²⁸

Ritual in popular culture in Indonesia is a clear example on assimilation between Islam and local tradition, like Kuntowijoyo describes. Pangiwahan rite in West Java, as an instance, aims to make human becoming honor ‘wiwaha’. In this perspective, people should deeply honor their born, marriage, death, etc. all rituals aim to show that the life is noble. The concept of noble life is obviously colored by Islamic culture considering human as noble creation.²⁹

'Indigenous Islam ' as a response to authentic Islam has three facets. First, Indigenous Islam has contextual character, namely, Islam should be understood as teachings which should be connected to time and space. Different time and space is the password in interpreting the teachings. Islam, therefore, develops in responding to development of history. Kedua, indigenous Islam is progressive in nature, in the sense that the development of time is not understood as threat and enemy of Islamic doctrines, but considered as a trigger of give creative response to the development. Third, indigenous Islam has liberation in character in the sense that Islam should become a religion which provides answers to solve problems of humanity for all people. By so doing, Islam is not rigid in facing changing social reality.

In this context, indigenous Islam liberates itself from Puritanism, authenticity and all forms of Islamic Puritanism, and at the same time maintains local wisdom without eliminating Islamic normativity. Indigenous Islam has spread cultural ideology,³⁰ which pays deep attention to locality than centralized cultural ideology, which understands religion without creative interpretation. This will make Islam spread entire area without breaking local culture. By so doing, no radicalism strengthened by fundamentalism which threats peace present.

2. The Authenticity of Indigenous Islam

The problem is indigenous Islam considered valid in the perspective of Islamic doctrines? The validity is important to socialize and internalize indigenous Islam as a discourse of the liberation of Muslims. Puritan Muslims consider indigenous Islam as the manifestation of the activity of bid’a which deviates from Islamic teachings. They believe that Muslim who practices bid’a goes astray. The history of Islam in Java noted many attempts of Muslim authority to eliminate sufism which is considered deviating from Islamic orthodoxy.

Conflict between Sheikh Siti Jenar and the King of Demak is the instance. Sheikh Siti Jenar is well known as a mystical saint. His spiritual path bears many conflicts with Islamic orthodoxy (authoritative Islamic doctrines). His strong mystical view makes him disobeying Islamic laws adopted by the kingdom. The authority of Islamic Javanese Kingdom in Demak had hard attempt to eliminate mystical impact, sufism and tarekat, because those have led people to become individualistic and disobeying the power of Kingdom.

This eventually made the authority of Demak punishing Sheikh Siti Jenar by burning him while he lives (although he does not die) as a signal of the elimination of sufism and Islamic mysticism and replaced by sharia for the sake of state security.

Kuntowijoyo³¹ argues that the tragedy is not a fruit of a conflict of religious belief between authoritative belief represented by the authority of Demak and deviating one upheld by Sheikh Siti Jenar, but a product of conflict of power. If the belief gives benefits to the status quo, the belief is adopted, even developed, and if the belief dangers the authority and has potential to shock social condition, the belief is eliminated fast.

Claims made by Islamic Puritan group needs to be countered to provide open dialogue to create new paradigm of those who involve in the dialogue. The majority of Islamic puritan groups believe that the Qur’an as a source of Islamic orthodoxy is a comprehensive holy book, and all problems of live anytime and anywhere can be answered by the Quran. According to Mark R. Woodward, this view is impossible³² because it is not the characteristic of the Quran to comprehensively talks about cosmology, stereo logy, ethics, rite and other religious facets, like other holy book.

Comprehensive doctrinal systems can only be born by interpretation, Mark R. Woodward argues. Theology and Islamic law are based on interpretation of the Qur’an and the sunny. Not long after the death of the Prophet, the formulation of the doctrines started and reaching its peak in hadith and semi-canonical sharia.³³

Hadith and sharia are parts of Islamic doctrines which are not included in the Qur’an. Fazlur Rahman³⁴ defines hadith as “a narration, usually very brief, which informs what the Companions said, deed and agreed or not agreed with …”. Strong proof shows that hadith consists of a lot of information on socio-religious activities of early Muslim community, and some of them can be directly traced back to the Prophet.³⁵ All are products of the process of signalization through which Qur’anic principles are utilized to weaken or reinterpret various forms of religious and social belief. Efforts to refer those expressions and practices to the Prophet will legitimize religious innovation and interpretation.

Moreover, hadith is developed to support wider political tradition and doctrines. Regarding this, it is important that shi’ite has its own hadith which differs from Sunnite. This leads to an observation made by Juniboll, arguing that one of the main goals of the formulation of hadiths aims to legitimize theological positions by projecting them to the Prophet. It seems that Muslim scholars admit that the process of “the collection” was stopped for unlimited time without falling into unlimited fabrication. In the third period of Islam, however, the science of hadith transmission was developed and this invention has been well documented in six semi-canonical books (kutub as-sittah) which together with the Quran become the core of Islamic orthodoxy.³⁶

The emergence of hadith literature gives clear example of the role of interpretation and symbolization in the evolution of the traditions of book. This process is a means through which fundamental principles of the Qur’an are utilized to arrange and interpret living tradition, which give foundation to the process of scripturalization of hadith (through symbolic association with the Prophet Muhammad). Hadith offers a type of popular ritual and devotional religion, and this completes a circle of interpretation.

Like the role of interpretation in the development of sharia, Goldziher³⁷ argues that the majority of the development of law is supported by Arab conquest over Byzantine and Persia, and sharia adopted Roman jurisprudence. Islamic law has four fundamental principles: (1) al-Qur’an, (2) al-Hadith, (3) Consensus of Ulama (ijma’), (4), analogy (qiyas).³⁸ It widens fundamental principles of the Quran and Hadith by providing comprehensive guide on all social and religious activities.

The characteristic of sharia and the usage of consensus and analogy as principles of interpretation bear debates on problems which are uncovered by the major themes of al-Qur’an and seem to trespass some hadith, a theme which liberates “from severe burden”.³⁹ Among the debates – which one of them will be taken into account in the explanation of indigenous Islam– is a debate on Javanese spirit cult and the theory of kingdom (kerajawian), which regards to the validity of marriage between man and spirit. Goldziher argues that this case of law is one crucial factor which leads to the development of sufism.

The long explanation above aims to answer views of Islamic puritan groups arguing that they are the most consistent and authentic in practicing Islamic teachings in their daily life. The authenticity is one of criteria of understanding religious doctrines. However, the puritan rejects historical dimensions of religious teachings, namely social, political and cultural processes which give impact to ideas and formulations of the doctrines. Puritan Muslims disobey interpretational dimension of religious teachings, and consider religion as a package from the sky completed by operational guide and technical guide, and this is not the case. Religious teachings are overwhelmed by interpretation, and interpretation has intimate relation to time and space, in which and at which the dialectics between religion and cultural structure bear, and here, indigenous Islam finds its validity.

D. The Government of Yogyakarta: Unifying Islam and Politics

One interesting concept of the tradition in Yogyakarta kingdom is that the king is called “Senopati ing Alaga Abdurrahman Sayyidin Panatagama Khalifatullah.” It was explained in the early part of this work that the title means sultan as an authoritative leader has a right to decide peace and war because his position as the highest military commander as well as most prominent figure and protector of religion as his position as khalifatulah, the successor of the Prophet Muhammad SAW.

Serat Centhini mentions that kalifatullah means representative of Allah in this world, successor of the Prophet Muhammad.⁴⁰ It can be concluded that the title of sultan in the tradition of Yogyakarta kingdom shows system of politics which unifies divine and worldly dimensions which is called unification of religion and state di>n wa dawlah in the perspective of Islam.

Islamic dimension of Yogyakarta Kingdom is very interesting to be studied from the perspective of Islamic politics, because the unification between state and religion in Islam becomes mainstream and a highlighted icon, although it can not be denied that there are various streams on it. Besides the unification, there is an idea on total separation between religion and state (secular perspective).

Deeper elaboration on the map of Islam politics from classical to contemporary development, the next discussion is on the history of the diversity of Islamic political thought. It goes without saying that idea on the unification between religion and politics, as implemented in Yogyakarta Kingdom, continuously develops from classical to modern period.

1. Islamic Political Thought

Religion, as stated by many peoples, can be considered as an instrument to understand the world.⁴¹ Islam, compared to other religions, is the most religion which accepts this premise easy. This is because Islam is omnipresence; a view which admits that Islam provides moral guide for human deeds every where”.⁴²

The view gives support to Muslims to believe that Islam provides total way of life. It body manifests in sharia. Even, some Muslim groups go steps further by arguing that “Islam is a perfect totality which provides problem solving towards all problems of life”.⁴³

In contemporary context, it is not wondering that, although it is worrying sometimes, contemporary Islamic world shows some Muslims want to make their social, economy and politic life on Islamic teachings exclusively, with no awareness on the limits and obstacles in practice. Their expressions can be found in symbolic terms which are popular in recent time like Islamic revivalism, Islamic resurgence, Islamic revolution, or Islamic fundamentalism.⁴⁴

Holistic view on Islam as mentioned above has some consequences. The view has produced literal interpretation on Islamic teachings, an interpretation which focuses on external dimension of Islam. This interpretation has been developed deeper which makes the context and internal principles of Islam are neglected.⁴⁵ This interpretation has stopped Muslims to understand Quranic messages as divine instrument which gives guide for moral values and ethics for life.

Admitting sharia as a complete system of life is a case, while understanding it is other case. In the context “how sharia should be understood” lays the real case, Fazlur Rahman argues.⁴⁶ There are some features which give impact and create understanding of Muslims to sharia. The condition of sociology, culture, intellectual and what Arkoun calls aesthetic of reception, give deep impact to the content of understanding.⁴⁷ Although all Muslims accept general principles of sharia, their understanding on Islamic teachings varies in nature.

The emergence of various schools of Islamic law, theology, and Islamic philosophy, for example, shows that Islamic doctrines are multi-interpretative.⁴⁸ This multi-interpretative nature has played important role as a foundation of the plasticity of Islam in history. This also indicates that pluralism in Islam is a must. Islam, therefore, cannot and should not be seen as monolithic, as many argue (Effendy, 1996 : 10).⁴⁹

The politics of Islam cannot be separated from multi-interpretative Islamic history. At other side, almost all Muslims believe on the importance of Islamic principles in political life. At the other, there are various views on Islam and politics as a product of multi-interpretative Islam. Even, various understandings on the development of intellectual discourse, thought and practice of the politic of Islam – some contradict to each other—come to the fore to discuss on Islam and politics.⁵⁰

Historical development of thought on politics in Islam since the early period until contemporary can be classified into three categories: classic, middle and contemporary. Classical and middle period bore some intellectuals like Ibn Arabi, al-Farabi, al-Mawardi, Ghazali, Ibnu Taimiyah, and Ibnu khaldun. Their thought can be concluded as: first, from those six intellectuals, al-Farabi is the only one who idealize tenets  of  state  life,  while  the  rests  tried  to  give  contribution  based  on  monarchy system,  a  system  which  should  be  accepted  with  no  question  at  that  time.  Even, some of them began their works with an introduction which legitimizes the system.⁵¹ Second,  they  have  similar  theories  on  the  emergence  of  the  state  which  are combination  between  Islam  and  Greek,  although  both  have  differences. The  main different between Islam and Greek is that Muslim intellectuals argue that the main goal of state does not only aim to fulfill physical needs, but also spiritual and after life ones. Ibn ‘Arabi, al-Ghazali,⁵²  and Ibn Taimiyah,⁵³    definitely state that the authority of president or king is a mandate from God which is given to His selected servants. They argue that caliph is caliph of God or shadow of God in this world. The power of caliph, according to al-Gazali, is pure (muqaddas), and cannot be questioned at all.⁵⁴ This differs from Mawardi’s opinion stating that a president can be dethroned if he has no quality to run the state anymore, weather because of physic, psychology and ethics. But al-Mawardi does not explain the way to dethrone president (al-Mawardi, 1973).⁵⁵  Third, Ibnu Khaldun argues that it is better to use Islamic law and teachings (Islam)  as  foundation  to  make  policies  and  state  regulations  than  use  product  of ijtihad.⁵⁶

2. Government in Yogyakarta

Having elucidated various forms of Islamic political thoughts, similarity of the philosophy of the traditions in Yogyakarta Kingdom and Islamic political thoughts, namely no separation between Islam and politics was discovered. According to this view, Islam and politics support to each other. At one side, Islam needs politics to uphold its doctrines and at the other politics needs Islam to provide rules of law originating from universal Islamic doctrines. This view manifests in symbolic system of politics of Yogyakarta kingdom which put king/sultan as panatagama and khalifatullah.

If we refer back to the early part of this article on philosophical analysis on various rites and symbolic system attached to Yogyakarta kingdom, apart from various views among Muslims, it can be said that they cannot be separated from the sublimistical doctrines in Islam which match to local tradition which is imbued by Hindu-Buddhist traditions and this syncretistic has ethical legitimacy in Islam.

Cultural and political system of Yogyakarta kingdom is a manifestation of the combination between sophisticated Islam and local tradition which is very rich with meanings and values. It is not exaggeration if it is said that the cultural and political system has wide chance to be implemented in contemporary cultural and political system of Yogyakarta kingdom. This is in line with political will of Yogyakarta Kingdom supported by the majority of members of society to fight the draft of the provision on the Autonomy of Provincial Government, Special Province of Yogyakarta.

A socio-cultural background of the specialty of Yogyakarta is the fact that although fundamental change happens, from cultural-syncretistic of Hindu-Javanese to Islam-Javanese, the acceptance of people of Yogyakarta towards Kasultananan and Kadipaten Pakualaman as centers of Javanese culture and symbol of leadership does not decrease. This can be seen from the enthusiastic response of people of Yogyakarta to come and involve in rites performed by both Kasultanan and Kadipaten Pakualaman, from the activities in the bank of Merapi Mountain to the Coast of South Sea. The appreciation of people can be seen from the concept of Dwi Tunggal (two in one), although it is not regulated by positive law, but it is accepted by Yogyakarta peoples sociologically. In the perspective of society, changing (even omitting) Dwi Tunggal is identical with omitting the specialty of Yogyakarta.⁵⁷

From this socio-cultural point of view, it is very thinkable if the right and the authority of Yogyakarta Kingdom should be upheld to become the right of Yogyakarta peoples. The right and the authority can be traced back to some historical proofs. First, at the period of Dutch colonial, a treaty was made between the Dutch and Yogyakarta Kingdom. Although the treaty reduced some governmental rights, the Dutch could not eliminate important point of the existence of the leadership of Yogyakarta Kingdom.⁵⁸

Second, Yogyakarta Kingdom has governmental structure accepted by the Dutch and Japanese. The structure originates from the kingdom (parentah jero or inside government) to outside the area of Kingdom, which covers nagara, nagaragung, mancanegara and pesisir (country, city of country, foreign country and coastal area). The outside government (outside kingdom area) is led by Pepatih Dalem/Patih Sultan assisted by Paniradyapati (minister). In nagara, nagaragung, mancanegara and pesisir, Patih Sultan is assisted by Bupati (major) who has responsibility to run an area called Kabupaten. Kabupaten is divided into some districts which are led by a Panji. In 1926, the title of Panji was changed by Wedana to make the title matches to the system of the Republic of Indonesia. The district is divided into some onder-distrik or kecamatan (sub-district) which led by Assistant of Panji, which was changed to become Assistant of Wedana, and then Panewu. The officials in every stage have responsible to his direct higher official. Every official do commands which are given by this superior official like giving reports on any events in the district he leads. For this duty, they are paid by a right to use sultanate’s land and free of tax.⁵⁹

Third, Yogyakarta Kingdom adopts the principles of monarchy, but modernization and democracy are conducted by the kingdom with upsetting steps. Among the steps of modernization and democracy are: the release of the seat of Patih Sultan, open recruitment for all people, and introducing specialization in birocracy.⁶⁰

Of course, this article does not aim to involve in the debate on the specialization of the Special District of Yogyakarta (DIY). But, it should be kept in mind that the government of Yogyakarta Kingdom which is a center of socio-cultural even political life of Yogyakarta people, has religious legitimacy, namely Islam which can be found in the ethical foundation of the kingdom.

In the middle of wave of secularism in recent era, system of symbol and politics which have religious nuance is significantly important. Secular life has made people alienated from their world and they become one dimensional man, as Herbert Marcuse argues.⁶¹ Spiritual life has been removed by material-pragmatics. Reactualization (menguri-uri) of Islamic tradition of Yogyakarta Kingdom should be based on the willingness to return people back to great tradition, namely Islam (in its contextual definition).⁶²

E. Conclusion

The Kingdom of Yogyakarta Kraton is the peak of Javanese-Islam which reflects religiosity of Yogyakarta peoples and Javanese in general. The tradition of Yogyakarta kingdom, like other kingdoms, adopts the concept of the harmony between politics, economy, social and religion. Unlike the tradition of modernity with its western oriented, secularism which means making separation between material and spiritual life should be avoided.

Apart from the controversy on the authenticity of Islam in the tradition of the kingdom, particularly that of modernist Muslims, the tradition of Islam in the kingdom is authentic from the perspective of Indigenous Islam which gives wide room to the process of acculturation between Islam and local tradition. Indigenous Islam in Yogyakarta Kingdom has come to a stage of harmony between normative Islam and culture, and this does not reduce Islamic authenticity as a religion based on sacred revelation.

The Special District of Yogyakarta with the kingdom as its center is a potential area to reactualize the political, social and cultural heritage of Javanese-Islam. The reactualization is important to maintain the identity and the character of Yogyakarta as a city imbued by Islamic culture in the middle of modernity. It can be said that the autonomy of special district of Yogyakarta as a juridical foundation is not an imagination.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Abdurrahman Wahid, Pergulatan Negara, Agama dan Kebudayaan, Jakarta: Desantara, 2001.

Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya Ulum al-Din, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1975.

Abu Hasan al-Mawardi, al-Ahkam al-Sulthaniyah, Mesir: al-Halabi, 1973.

Annemarie Schimmel, Dimensi Mistik dalam Islam, Bandung: Mizan, 2002.

Bahtiar Effendi, Islam dan Negara: Transformasi Pemikiran dan Praktik Politik Islam di Indonesia, Jakarta: Paramadina, 1998.

Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Fazlur Rahman, Islam, New York, Chicago, San Fransisco: Holt, Reinhart, Winston, 1966.

Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, Princeton: Princeton University.

Hendar Riyadi, “Respon Muhammadiyah dalam Dialektika Agama”, dalam Pikiran Rakyat, Senin 24 Pebruari 2003.

Herbert Marcuse, One Dimentional Man, Boston: Beacon, 1964.

Hodgson, Marshall G.S., The Ventura of Islam: Conscience and History in a World of Civilization, terj. Mulyadhi Kartanegara, Jakarta: Paramadina, 1999.

Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, terj. Ahmadie Thoha, Jakarta: Pustaka Firdaus, 1986.

Ibn Taimiyah, As-Siyasah asy-Syari‘ah fi Islah}al-Ra‘i wa al-Ra‘iyyah, Bairut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Arabiyat, 1966.

Khamami  Zada,  dkk.,  “Islam    Pribumi:  Mencari  Wajah  Islam  Indonesia”,  dalam Tashwirul Afkar, Jurnal Refleksi Pemikiran Keagamaan & Kebudayaan, Edisi No. 14 tahun 2003.

Kuntowijoyo, Muslim Tanpa Masjid, Essai-essai Agama, Budaya, dan Politik dalam Bingkai Strukturalisme Transendental, Bandung: Mizan, 2001.

----, Paradigma Islam Interpretasi Untuk Aksi, Bandung: Mizan, 1991.

Leonard Binder, Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Idiologies, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa: Kesalehan Normatif Versus Kebatinan, terj. Hairus Salim HS, Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1999.

Moedjanto, The Concept of Power in Javanese Culture, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1986.

Mohemmed Arkoun, Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers, terj. Yudian W. Asmin, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 1996.

Munawir Sjadzali, Islam dan Tata Negara: Ajaran, Sejarah dan Pemikiran, cet. V, Jakarta: UI-Press, 1993.

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Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essay on Religion in a Post-Traditionalist World, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California press, 1991.

Said Agil Husein al-Munawar, “Pidato Pembukaan Menteri Agama Republik Indonesia”, dalam Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta II, Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Indonesia & IAIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, 2001.

Selo Soemardjan, Perubahan Sosial di Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1981.

Simuh, Sufisme Jawa: Transformasi Tasawuf Islam ke Mistik Jawa, Yogyakarta: Bentang, 1995.

Siti Chamamah Soeratno, dkk., Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta II, Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Indonesia & IAIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, 2001.

Soedarsiman Poerwokoesoemo, Kasultanan Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1985.

Teuku Ibrahim Alfian, dkk., Islam dan Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Indonesia, 1998.

W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Political Thought, Einburgh: Einburgh University Press, 1960.

 

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¹  Simuh, Sufisme Jawa: Transformasi Tasawuf Islam ke Mistik Jawa, (Yogyakarta: Bentang, 1995), p. 120.

² Siti Chamamah Soeratno, et al., Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta II, (Yogyakarta : Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Indonesia & IAIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, 2001), p. 1

³ Ibid.

⁴ Said Agil Husein al-Munawar, “Pidato Pembukaan Menteri Agama Republik Indonesia”, in Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta II, (Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Indonesia & IAIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, 2001), p. xx.

⁵ Ibid., p. 3.

⁶ See Simuh, Sufisme Jawa, p. 127.

⁷ Ibid., pp. 127-9.

⁸ The religious rites are maintained in some places which has been the center of Islamic Kingdoms, including Yogyakarta, until now.

⁹ See: www. Kraton_yogyakarta. co.id

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa: Kesalehan Normatif Versus Kebatinan, terj. Hairus Salim HS, (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1999), p. 293.

¹² Ibid., p. 294.

¹³ Ibid. This is based on Mark R. Woodward’s understanding on brochure publicized by the kingdom ainterviews with senior officials of the kingdom.

¹⁴ Annemarie Schimmel, Dimensi Mistik dalam Islam, (Bandung: Mizan, 2002), p. 247.

¹⁵ See Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa, p. 296. Bandingkan dengan Teuku Ibrahim Alfian, dkk., Islam dan Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta, (Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Indonesia, 1998), pp. 7-8.

¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ Axis mundi is a term adopted from Budhist cosmology which means center of spirituality. ¹⁸ Ibid., p. 297.

¹⁹ Sri Sultan Hamengkubowono X, “Sambutan”, in Islam dan Khasanah Budaya Kraton Yogyakarta, (Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kebudayaan Islam Yogyakarta, 1998), pp. ix-x.

²⁰ Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa, p. 265-6.

²¹ Annemarie Schimmel, Dimensi Sufistik, p. 200.

²² Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa, p. 267.

²³ Simuh, Sufisme Jawa, p. 130.

²⁴ Kuntowijoyo, Muslim Tanpa Masjid, Essai-essai Agama, Budaya, dan Politik dalam Bingkai Strukturalisme Transendental, (Bandung: Mizan, 2001), p. 196.

²⁵ Ibid., p. 195.

²⁶ See Hendar Riyadi, “Respon Muhammadiyah dalam Dialektika Agama”, in Pikiran Rakyat, Monday 24th February 2003.

²⁷  Abdurrahman Wahid, Pergulatan Negara, Agama dan Kebudayaan, (Jakarta: Desantara, 2001), p. 111.

²⁸ Khamami Zada, et al., “Islam Pribumi: Mencari Wajah Islam Indonesia”, in Tashwirul Afkar, Jurnal Refleksi Pemikiran Keagamaan & Kebudayaan, No. 14/2003, pp. 9-10.

²⁹ Kuntowijoyo, Paradigma Islam: Interpretasi Untuk Aksi, (Bandung: Mizan, 1991), p. 235.

³⁰ Khamami Zada, et al., Islam Pribumi, p. 12.

³¹ Kuntowijoyo, Paradigma Islam, pp. 232 -3.

 ³² See Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa,  90. ³³ Ibid., p. 91.

³⁴ Fazlur Rahman, Islam, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 54.

³⁵ See Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 31-42; or Fazlur Rahman, Islam, pp. 43-64.

³⁶ Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa, p. 91.

³⁷ Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic, p. 45.

³⁸ Fazlur Rahman, Islam, p. 68.

³⁹ Ibid., p. 55.

⁴⁰ Moedjanto, The Concept of Power in Javanese Culture, (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1986), p. 107.

⁴¹ See Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essay on Religion in a Post-Traditionalist World, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California press, 1991), p. 146. Compare to Leonard Binder, Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Idiologies, (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 4.

⁴² Fazlur Rahman, Islam, p. 241.

⁴³ Bahtiar Effendi, Islam dan Negara: Transformasi Pemikiran dan Praktik Politik Islam di Indonesia, (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1998), p. 7.

⁴⁴ Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, (Chicago and London : University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 45.

⁴⁵ Bakhtiar Effendi, Islam dan Negara, p. 9.

⁴⁶ Fazlur Rahman, Islam, p. 101.

⁴⁷ Mohemmed Arkoun, Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers, translated by Yudian W. Asmin, (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 1996), p. 199.

⁴⁸ Marshall G.S. Hodgson, The Ventura of Islam: Conscience and History in a World of Civilization, translated by Mulyadhi Kartanegara, (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1999), p. 67.

⁴⁹ Bakhtiar Effendi, Islam dan Negara, p. 10.

⁵⁰  W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Political Thought, (Einburg: Einburgh University Press, 1960), p. 89.

⁵¹ Munawir Sjadzali, Islam dan Tata Negara: Ajaran, Sejarah dan Pemikiran, cet. V, (Jakarta: UI-Press, 1993), p. 108.

⁵² Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya Ulum al-Din, (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1975).

⁵³ Ibn Taimiyah, As-Siyasah asy-Syari‘ah fi Islah}al-Ra‘i wa al-Ra‘iyyah, (Bairut: ‘Arabiyat, 1966).

⁵⁴ See Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya Ulum al-Din, p. 90.

⁵⁵ See Abu Hasan al-Mawardi,  al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyah, (Mesir: al-Halabi, 1973), hlm. 55.

⁵⁶ Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, translated by Ahmadie Thoha, (Jakarta: Pustaka Firdaus, 1986), p. 189.

⁵⁷ See Naskah Akademik Rancangan Undang-Undang tentang Keistimewaan Propinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (Academic Manuscript of Provisional Draft of the Special treatment of the Special District of Yogyakarta), hlm. 9.

⁵⁸ Soedarsiman Poerwokoesoemo, Kasultanan Yogyakarta, (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1985), bab III & IV, dalam Naskah Akademik Rancangan Undang-Undang tentang Keistimewaan Propinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (Academic Manuscript of Provisional Draft of the Special treatment of the Special District of Yogyakarta), pp. 7-8

⁵⁹ Selo Soemardjan, Perubahan Sosial di Yogyakarta, (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1981), pp. 34-36, in Naskah Akademik Rancangan Undang-Undang tentang Keistimewaan Propinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (Academic Manuscript of Provisional Draft of the Special treatment of the Special District of Yogyakarta), p. 8.

⁶⁰ Ibid.

⁶¹ See Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man, (Boston: Beacon, 1964).

⁶² Max Weber offers a mode of symbolic analysis by introducing verstehen (understanding) which makes an individual rethinking what others believe without particular assumption. Verstehen states that if an object is a system of culture, it can be differentiated between great and little traditions. Great tradition is a substance and the little is wadag (body) of the tradition.